Evolution and Philosophy of Buddhism

Historical Antecedents and the Sixth Century BCE Heterodox Churn

The sixth century BCE stands as a profound watershed in the socio-economic, political, and spiritual history of the Indian subcontinent. This epoch, historically characterized as the era of the Second Urbanization, witnessed the geographic center of political and economic gravity shift from the agrarian plains of the Indo-Gangetic divide (the locus of the Later Vedic period) to the fertile middle Gangetic valley.

This transition was fundamentally underpinned by the widespread application of iron technology. The utilization of iron axes facilitated the mass clearance of dense forests in the Gangetic basin, while the adoption of iron-tipped plowshares enabled deep plowing, generating a massive agricultural surplus. This surplus, in turn, supported a burgeoning urban economy, the rise of the Mahajanapadas (territorial states), the proliferation of powerful merchant guilds (shrenis), and the advent of India’s earliest coinage system in the form of punch-marked coins.

However, the rigid socio-religious superstructure of the later Vedic period, dominated by the Brahmanical hierarchy, proved increasingly incompatible with these rapidly evolving material realities. Vedic religion had become excessively ritualistic, hinging on elaborate, complex, and immensely expensive animal sacrifices (yajnas). This indiscriminate slaughter of livestock directly contradicted the needs of the new iron-plow agriculture, which heavily relied on animal husbandry.

Furthermore, the varna system had ossified into a strict, hereditary hierarchy, completely suffocating social mobility. The Vaishyas (merchants, traders, and agriculturalists), who commanded the newly minted economic wealth of the urban centers, found their social status structurally suppressed beneath the Brahmans and Kshatriyas. Simultaneously, the Kshatriyas, who wielded expanding political and military power as the rulers of the Mahajanapadas, fiercely resented the ritualistic and intellectual hegemony claimed by the priestly Brahmanical class. It is no historical coincidence that the founders of the era's most prominent heterodox sects—Siddhartha Gautama (Buddhism) and Vardhamana Mahavira (Jainism)—were both of Kshatriya lineage.

This widespread socio-economic and religious discontent culminated in the rapid rise of the Shramana (seeker or ascetic) movement, representing a radical intellectual rebellion against orthodox Vedic traditions. The Shramana traditions—which included Buddhism, Jainism, the Ajivikas (founded by Makkhali Gosala, emphasizing Niyati or strict determinism), and the Charvakas (materialists)—were explicitly Nastika (heterodox). They unequivocally rejected the supreme authority of the Vedas, discarded the efficacy of Brahmanical rituals, opposed the hereditary caste system, and advocated for an austere, introspective path toward spiritual liberation (Nirvana or Moksha) driven by individual effort, ethical conduct, and non-violence (Ahimsa). Buddhism emerged from this intellectual crucible as a powerful reformative force, eschewing extreme asceticism in favor of a rational, psychological approach to human suffering.

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The Life of Siddhartha Gautama and Key Symbolic Events

Buddhism traces its origins to Siddhartha Gautama, an aristocratic prince of the Shakya clan born in Lumbini (in present-day Nepal) in the 5th century BCE. Despite a life of royal privilege, Siddhartha was profoundly affected by the existential realities of aging, disease, and death. Renouncing his royal privileges, his family, and the luxuries of his palace, Siddhartha adopted the rigorous life of a wandering Shramana in a relentless quest to decode the nature of human suffering and the cycle of rebirth. Following years of extreme, ultimately fruitless asceticism under various teachers, he discovered the "Middle Way" and attained supreme enlightenment under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, becoming the Buddha (The "Awakened" or "Enlightened One").

For the serious scholar of ancient Indian art and history, the life of the Buddha is encapsulated in five seminal events. Because early Buddhism was largely aniconic (representing the Buddha not in human form but through symbols), these events are universally represented in early Buddhist art and architecture (such as the stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut) through specific motifs:

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The Four Noble Truths (Arya Satyas): The Diagnostic Core of Dhamma

Unlike the esoteric metaphysical speculation characteristic of the later Upanishads, the original philosophy of the Buddha was highly pragmatic, psychological, and therapeutic. He diagnosed the human condition with the precision of a physician, structuring his central philosophy around the Four Noble Truths (Arya Satyas), which form the bedrock of all Buddhist doctrine.

• Dukkha (The Truth of Suffering): The fundamental baseline of existence is intertwined with suffering, dissatisfaction, and pervasive unease. This encompasses not merely physical pain and emotional sorrow, but the existential dread stemming from the impermanence of all worldly phenomena. Even moments of joy are tinged with Dukkha because they are fleeting and inevitably come to an end.
• Dukkha Samudaya (The Truth of the Origin of Suffering): Suffering is not an arbitrary curse; it has a specific, identifiable origin. This origin is Tanha (thirst, craving, or desire). It is the relentless human pursuit of sensory pleasure, material possession, and the illusion of a permanent ego-self. As long as this 'thirst' to exist and consume continues, the cycle of continuity (Samsara) persists.
• Dukkha Nirodha (The Truth of the Cessation of Suffering): Because suffering has a specific causal origin, it is entirely possible to eradicate it. The extinction of craving, attachment, and ignorance naturally results in the cessation of suffering, culminating in Nirvana—a state of profound peace, supreme happiness without sensation, and absolute liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
• Dukkha Nirodha Magga (The Truth of the Path): The practical, step-by-step mechanism to achieve the cessation of craving is the Noble Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga).

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The Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga): Practical Ethics and Meditation

The mechanism for achieving liberation in Buddhism is the Noble Eightfold Path. It is frequently referred to as the Madhyama Pratipada (Middle Path), as it consciously and deliberately avoids the paralyzing extremes of severe ascetic self-mortification (practiced by sects like the Ajivikas and Jains) and unchecked sensual hedonism (advocated by the Charvakas).

The Eightfold Path is not a linear sequence but a synergistic system of practices categorized into three distinct pillars of personal development: Pragna (wisdom), Shila (ethical conduct), and Samadhi (mental discipline or concentration).

I. Pragna (Wisdom)

• Right Understanding (Samma Ditthi): The deep, internalized comprehension of the Four Noble Truths, the law of Karma, and the doctrines of impermanence and non-self.
• Right Intent/Thought (Samma Sankappa): The conscious resolve to renounce worldly attachment and to cultivate thoughts of loving-kindness and harmlessness toward all sentient beings.

II. Shila (Ethical Conduct)

• Right Speech (Samma Vaca): Abstaining from lying, divisive speech, abusive language, and idle chatter.
• Right Action (Samma Kammanta): Adhering to the core precepts: abstaining from killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct.
• Right Livelihood (Samma Ajiva): Engaging in a profession that does not cause harm to others. The Buddha explicitly discouraged livelihoods involving the trade of weapons, living beings, meat, intoxicants, and poisons.

III. Samadhi (Mental Discipline)

• Right Effort (Samma Vayama): The energetic will to prevent unwholesome states of mind from arising, to abandon existing unwholesome states, and to cultivate wholesome states of mind.
• Right Mindfulness (Samma Sati): The continuous, alert awareness of the body, feelings, mind, and mental objects, anchoring the practitioner entirely in the present moment.
• Right Concentration (Samma Samadhi): The practice of deep meditation (Dhyana), leading to the unification of the mind and the eventual attainment of profound insight into reality.

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The Three Jewels (Triratna) and the Institutional Framework of the Sangha

The institutional and spiritual framework of Buddhism rests upon the Triratna (The Three Jewels), the core trinity wherein followers seek refuge. These are:

• The Buddha: The enlightened teacher and supreme guide.
• The Dhamma: The teachings, the universal law, and the path to liberation.
• The Sangha: The monastic order and the community of practitioners.

Democratic Functioning of the Sangha

The Sangha was a remarkable experiment in early democratic governance, heavily influenced by the political structures of contemporary republican states (Gana-Sanghas) like the Vajjis/Licchavis. According to the Vinaya Pitaka, the monastic order operated without a centralized, authoritarian leader post-Buddha. Instead, it relied entirely on structured parliamentary procedures.

Monastic business was conducted in local assemblies (Santhagara), requiring a strict quorum for acts to be considered valid. Decision-making was grounded in consensus, and when consensus failed, by majority vote. The texts highlight highly sophisticated voting procedures using colored wooden sticks called salaka, which were distributed by an appointed officer. Voting could be conducted secretly (to avoid intimidation by senior monks), by whispering, or openly via a show of hands. Intricate rules governed the moving of resolutions, consent, dissent, and referendums. Furthermore, rule interpretations and disputes were systematically resolved by special committees elected for that specific purpose, ensuring an egalitarian, rule-bound community.

The Position of Women (Bhikkhunis) and the Garudhammas

Early Buddhism was revolutionary in recognizing that women possessed the identical spiritual capacity for liberation as men, a stark departure from orthodox Brahmanical norms which often relegated women to domestic servitude. The formation of the Bhikkhuni Sangha (Order of Nuns), catalyzed by the persistent requests of the Buddha’s aunt and foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, and his close disciple Ananda, marked a historic milestone for women's spiritual enfranchisement.

However, the integration of women was sociologically complex and historically contested. Traditional canonical texts stipulate that the Buddha consented to female ordination only upon their acceptance of the Eight Garudhammas (heavy rules). These rules institutionally subordinated nuns to monks. For instance, Garudhamma 1 dictated that a nun ordained for a century must respectfully defer, rise, and bow to a monk ordained that very day. Garudhammas 7 and 8 strictly prohibited nuns from admonishing or rebuking monks under any circumstance, while monks were free to admonish nuns.

Modern historiography and Buddhist scholars heavily debate the historicity of the Garudhammas. Extensive philological evidence suggests they may not have been promulgated by the Buddha himself. Many scholars argue these rules were interpolated by later monastic compilers during subsequent councils to placate the patriarchal sensibilities of the broader society, attempting to shield the Sangha from accusations of moral laxity or social subversion. Despite these institutional hurdles, female monastics flourished, achieving high spiritual states and producing profound spiritual literature such as the Therigatha (Verses of the Elder Nuns).

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First to Fourth Buddhist Councils: Codification and Doctrinal Schisms

The preservation, codification, and inevitable ideological fragmentation of the Buddha’s teachings occurred through a series of historic monastic convocations known as the Buddhist Councils.

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Canonical Literature: The Structure and Significance of the Tripitakas

The orthodox corpus of Theravada Buddhism, representing the earliest and most complete collection of Buddhist sacred literature, was compiled primarily in Pali. Utilizing the vernacular dialect of Magadha and South Bihar ensured the teachings remained highly accessible to the common masses, avoiding the elitism of Brahmanical Sanskrit. The canonical literature is structured into the Tripitaka (Three Baskets):

• Vinaya Pitaka (The Basket of Discipline): This text focuses strictly on the moral codes, rules, and regulations governing the daily lives of monks and nuns, as well as the organizational protocols of the Sangha. It is subdivided into:
  • Suttavibhanga: Contains the Patimokkha (the core rules of discipline), split into rules for monks (Mahavibhanga) and nuns (Bhikkhunivibhanga).
  • Khandaka: Deals with structural regulations across 22 chapters.
  • Parivara: Provides analyses of rules from various viewpoints.
• Sutta Pitaka (The Basket of Discourse): This forms the doctrinal heart of Buddhism, containing the core teachings, dialogues, and sermons delivered by the Buddha. It is systematically divided into five Nikayas (Collections):
  • Digha-Nikaya (Long Discourses)
  • Majjhima-Nikaya (Middle-length Discourses)
  • Samyutta-Nikaya (Thematically Connected Discourses)
  • Anguttara-Nikaya (Numerically arranged Discourses)
  • Khuddaka-Nikaya (Minor collection). This is incredibly significant as it houses popular and profound works such as the Dhammapada, the Jataka tales (547 morality stories of the Buddha's previous births as a Bodhisattva), and the Theragatha and Therigatha (Hymns of the Elder Monks and Nuns).
• Abhidhamma Pitaka (The Basket of Higher Doctrine): This text dissects the Buddha’s teachings into advanced psycho-philosophical and metaphysical frameworks. Consisting of seven books (such as Dhammasangani and Kathavatthu), it eschews narrative format, instead utilizing strict scholastic language to explain the principles behind mental and physical processes, ethics, and theories of knowledge.

Non-Canonical and Vernacular Literature: Pali, Prakrit, and Sanskrit Transitions

As Buddhism expanded chronologically and geographically, a massive corpus of secondary, non-canonical literature emerged. Concurrently, driven by the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, the scriptural language gradually shifted from the egalitarian Pali to the highly structured classical Sanskrit.

• Milinda Panha (Questions of Milinda): Composed around 100 BCE to 2nd Century CE in Pali, this text is a masterpiece of early Buddhist dialectics. It records a series of profound philosophical discussions on the points of Dhamma between the Indo-Greek King Menander I of Bactria (Milinda) and the Buddhist sage Nagasena.
• Buddhacharita and Sanskrit Epics: Authored by the great philosopher Ashvaghosa in the early 2nd century CE, the Buddhacharita is a seminal Sanskrit epic poem detailing the life and awakening of the Buddha. Other crucial Sanskrit texts include the Lalitavistara Sutra and the Avadana literature.
• Visuddhimagga: Written by Buddhaghosha in the 5th century CE, the "Path of Purification" serves as a comprehensive manual for Theravada meditation and philosophical understanding.
• Ceylonese Chronicles: The Dipavamsa (Island Chronicle, 4th century CE) and the Mahavamsa (Great Chronicle, 5th century CE) are regional historical-mythical texts. They are indispensable for reconstructing the history of Buddhism's spread to Sri Lanka under Ashoka.

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Hinayana vs. Mahayana: Comparative Doctrinal and Ideological Analysis

The ideological elasticity of Buddhism allowed it to adapt to diverse cultures, leading to the crystallization of two distinct primary vehicles (Yanas) following the Fourth Buddhist Council.

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Vajrayana and Tantric Buddhism: Esoteric Shifts in Early Medieval India

Emerging prominently in eastern India between the 5th and 8th centuries CE, Vajrayana (The Thunderbolt or Diamond Vehicle) marked the esoteric, Tantric phase of Buddhism. Highly patronized by the powerful Pala Dynasty (specifically kings like Dharmapala and Devapala), Vajrayana posited a radical acceleration of the path to liberation. Instead of countless lifetimes of gradual accumulation of merit, Vajrayana taught that Buddhahood could be achieved in a single lifetime through intense, esoteric rituals.

Vajrayana heavily synthesized traditional Buddhist philosophy with indigenous Indian tantric practices. Key features included the recitation of Mantras (sacred acoustic codes and spells), the performance of Mudras (ritual hand and body gestures), and meditation upon Mandalas (intricate psycho-cosmogrammatic visual aids). A unique socio-religious development within Vajrayana was the veneration of active female energy, introducing powerful female deities such as Tara.

The institutional heart of Vajrayana was the Vikramashila University in Bihar, founded by Dharmapala. It housed up to 1,600 monks and 160 faculty. Vikramashila featured a unique administrative innovation: six "Tantric gates" guarded by eminent scholars (Dvarapanditas) who rigorously examined entrants through philosophical debate. However, the heavy reliance on complex rituals, magic, and mantras eventually blurred the theological boundaries between Buddhism and Shaiva/Shakta Hinduism, contributing to Buddhism's loss of distinct identity in India.

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Pratityasamutpada (Dependent Origination): The Core Metaphysical Pillar

At the absolute metaphysical core of Buddhist philosophy lies the doctrine of Pratityasamutpada (Dependent Origination, or Conditioned Co-arising). The doctrine encapsulates the law of universal causality, formulated generally as: "When this is, that arises; when this is not, that does not arise". Unlike orthodox theistic models that posit an uncaused primary creator (God) or random chance, Buddhism views all of existence as an intricate, interdependent web of causes and conditions.

This causal nexus is minutely detailed through the Dvadasa Nidana (The 12 Links of Dependent Origination), graphically represented on the outer rim of the Buddhist Bhavachakra (Wheel of Life):The profundity of this doctrine lies in its reversibility. By neutralizing the primary link—Avijja (Ignorance)—through deep meditative insight and wisdom, the entire causal chain shatters, effectively terminating the cycle of Samsara and leading to liberation.

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Doctrines of Anicca (Impermanence) and Anatta (No-Self): The Radical Ontology

Because all phenomena are conditionally originated (Pratityasamutpada), it logically follows that nothing in the universe is permanent or eternal. This gives rise to the foundational doctrine of Anicca (Impermanence) and the theory of Kshanikavada (Momentariness). Buddhism asserts that reality is not static; rather, it is a dynamic, continuous stream of discrete, momentary events in a constant state of flux.

By extension, Buddhism executes a radical philosophical departure from orthodox Hinduism and Jainism by refuting the concept of an eternal, unchanging soul (Atman or Jiva). This doctrine, known as Anatta (Non-self), posits that what we conventionally label as the "self," "ego," or "I" is not a permanent essence. It is merely a temporary amalgamation of five continuously shifting psycho-physical aggregates called Skandhas: Form (physical matter), Sensation (feelings), Perception (recognition), Mental Formations (volition/karma), and Consciousness.

Madhyamaka Philosophy: Nagarjuna’s Concept of Sunyavada (Emptiness)

As Mahayana Buddhism intellectually matured, it produced highly sophisticated philosophical schools. The foremost of these was the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school, founded by the eminent scholar Nagarjuna (c. 150 CE). Nagarjuna advanced the radical concept of Sunyavada (Emptiness). Expanding upon the doctrine of Dependent Origination, Nagarjuna argued logically that because all things are dependently originated, they totally lack independent, intrinsic nature or essence (svabhava). Therefore, all physical and mental phenomena are "empty" (sunya) of absolute, independent reality.

Yogacara/Vijnanavada Philosophy: Consciousness-Only and Mind-Stream Theories

In response to Madhyamaka, a second major Mahayana philosophical school emerged: Yogacara or Vijnanavada (The School of Consciousness). Founded by Asanga and Vasubandhu, Yogacara posited an idealist framework, arguing the "Mind-Only" doctrine. Central to this is the concept of the Alayavijnana (the "storehouse consciousness"). The Alayavijnana acts as an unconscious repository that stores the karmic seeds of all past actions, projecting the illusion of an external world and an internal self.

Buddhist Logic and Epistemology (Pramana): Contributions of Dignaga and Dharmakirti

To defend Buddhist doctrines against orthodox Hindu logicians (Nyaya and Mimamsa schools), Buddhists developed a formidable system of logic and epistemology (Pramanavada), architected primarily by Dignaga and refined by Dharmakirti. Dignaga stripped the valid means of knowledge down to only two:

• Pratyaksha (Perception): Direct sensory cognition completely devoid of conceptual construction.
• Anumana (Inference): Logical deduction used to interpret relationships and synthesize concepts.

Dignaga also introduced Apohavada (The Theory of Exclusion). He posited that words and concepts function purely through negation—they define an object strictly by excluding what it is not (a cow is meaningful only because it is a "non-non-cow").

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Socio-Economic Dynamics: Merchant Guilds, Urbanization, and Royal Patronage

The meteoric rise and pan-Asian expansion of Buddhism was intricately intertwined with the socio-economic imperatives of the era. Buddhism essentially provided the ideological software for the hardware of early Indian state formation and the Second Urbanization.

Orthodox Brahmanical law books looked down upon the accumulation of commercial wealth and explicitly condemned the practice of usury. Buddhism, in stark contrast, offered an egalitarian worldview that did not condemn trade, wealth creation, or the charging of interest, provided they were pursued ethically.

Consequently, the Vaishya merchant class (Setthis) became the religion's most generous patrons. They heavily funded the construction of massive monastic complexes (Viharas), which strategically aligned with major internal trade routes and international arteries like the Silk Road. The monasteries evolved into vital socio-economic hubs, functioning as early credit institutions, storehouses, and safe havens for traveling mercantile caravans.

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Decline, Diaspora, and Re-emergence: From Invasions to Assimilation

Despite maintaining an unrivaled sway for centuries, Buddhism began a steady fade from its Indian birthplace by the early 12th century CE.

• Internal Degradation and Institutional Alienation: Lavish land grants transformed monasteries into wealthy, self-isolating landlord institutions. The monks abandoned rigorous discipline, leading to corruption. Mahayana's pivot to classical Sanskrit also alienated the religion from the common masses.
• Ideological Assimilation and the Bhakti Resurgence: The Gupta Empire witnessed a state-sponsored resurgence of orthodox Brahmanical traditions. Hinduism tactical absorbed Buddhist elements—adopting non-violence, curtailing animal sacrifice, and co-opting the Buddha as the ninth avatar of Lord Vishnu. Vajrayana's reliance on Tantric rituals further blurred the lines between Buddhism and Hinduism.
• Loss of Royal Patronage and External Invasions: Regional Rajput kingdoms heavily favored Vedic orthodoxy and withdrew patronage. The final blow came from the Huna (Hun) invasions, which disrupted the Silk Road, and the Turkish Islamic invasions in the 12th century (e.g., Bakhtiyar Khalji), which physically destroyed the great Buddhist university fortresses of Nalanda, Odantapuri, and Vikramashila.

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Ambedkar’s Navayana Buddhism: The 20th Century Revival

After lying virtually dormant in its homeland, Buddhism experienced a politically charged resurrection in the 20th century under Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. Viewing the Hindu caste system as an irredeemable engine of inequality, Ambedkar initiated a historic mass conversion of nearly 400,000 Dalits on October 14, 1956, in Nagpur, to a new, rationalist sect known as Navayana (The New Vehicle).

Navayana discards classical metaphysical doctrines such as the law of karma, the cycle of rebirth, and the necessity of the monastic ascetic ideal, viewing them as irrational. Instead, Navayana utilizes Buddhism explicitly as an instrument for social emancipation, grounding theology in the democratic ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity.

The 22 Vows

Central to the Navayana movement is the administration of the 22 Vows by Ambedkar. They serve a dual purpose:
1. Rejection of Brahmanical Hegemony: Prohibiting the worship of Hindu deities and the performance of Hindu rituals, definitively severing the converts' psychological ties to the caste hierarchy.
2. Commitment to Ethical Rationalism and Equality: Reinforcing strict adherence to the Noble Eightfold Path, non-violence, compassion, and egalitarian living.

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Summary and Quick Revision

• Origins & Heterodox Churn: Emerged in the 6th century BCE during the Second Urbanization. Fueled by Iron Age agricultural surplus and merchant wealth. A Kshatriya-led Shramana reaction against rigid Vedic animal sacrifices and Brahmanical caste supremacy.
• The Buddha's Life: Siddhartha Gautama attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. Key events are symbolized in art: Birth (Lotus/Bull), Departure (Horse), Enlightenment (Bodhi Tree), First Sermon (Wheel), Death (Stupa).
• Core Philosophy:
  • Four Noble Truths: Diagnoses life as suffering (Dukkha), caused by craving (Samudaya/Tanha), which can be ended (Nirodha) by following a path (Magga).
  • Eightfold Path: The Middle Way categorized into Wisdom (Pragna), Ethics (Shila), and Meditation (Samadhi).
• Sangha & Democracy: Operated on republican principles, using voting sticks (salaka) and committees. Women were admitted (Bhikkhunis), though controversially subordinated via the Garudhammas.
• Four Councils:
  • Rajgriha: Compiled Sutta & Vinaya Pitakas.
  • Vaishali: First schism (Sthaviravadins vs Mahasanghikas).
  • Pataliputra: Ashoka's patronage; compiled Abhidhamma; sent missions.
  • Kashmir: Kanishka's patronage; split into Hinayana and Mahayana; shift to Sanskrit.
• Literature: The Tripitakas (Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma) were written in Pali. Non-canonical works like Milinda Panha and Buddhacharita mark the transition to Sanskrit.
• Sectarian Evolution:
  • Hinayana: Orthodox, individual effort, Arhat ideal, Buddha as human, Pali texts.
  • Mahayana: Devotional, grace, Bodhisattva ideal, Buddha as God, idol worship, Sanskrit texts.
  • Vajrayana: Esoteric Tantra, Mantras, Mandalas, Female deities (Tara), rapid enlightenment.
• Ontology & Metaphysics:
  • Pratityasamutpada: Universal causality (Dependent Origination) mapped via the 12 Nidanas.
  • Anicca & Anatta: Radical denial of permanence and an eternal soul.
• Advanced Philosophy:
  • Madhyamaka (Nagarjuna): Sunyavada (Emptiness).
  • Yogacara: Vijnanavada; Mind-only doctrine.
  • Logic (Dignaga/Dharmakirti): Reduced valid knowledge to Perception and Inference. Formulated Apohavada (Exclusion theory of meaning).
• Socio-Economics: Patronized by wealthy merchants (Setthis) because it validated the credit economy, opposed caste, and promoted non-violence.
• Decline: Caused by monastic wealth/corruption, language shifts, Rajput withdrawal of patronage, assimilation by Hindu Bhakti, and destructive Hun/Turkish invasions.
• Modern Revival (Navayana): Spearheaded by B.R. Ambedkar in 1956. Discarded karma/rebirth in favor of social emancipation defined by 22 vows.