Prehistoric India and Megalithic Culture

Introduction to Indian Prehistory

The reconstruction of India’s prehistoric past relies exclusively on archaeological excavations, geological dating, archaeobotany, and anthropological frameworks, as it predates the invention of writing. The trajectory of human evolution in the Indian subcontinent is inextricably linked to geological epochs, primarily the Pleistocene (the Ice Age) and the Holocene (the post-glacial warming period). The classification of prehistoric cultures is fundamentally based on the morphological evolution of stone tools, the gradual mastery over the environment, and the eventual transition from nomadic foraging to complex, socially stratified, agrarian societies.

Recent trends in historiography, incorporating new theoretical perspectives, scientific technologies (like genomic sequencing and isotopic analysis), and enormously growing archaeological data, have drastically reshaped traditional narratives. This comprehensive report provides a nuanced analysis of the Indian prehistoric timeline—from the earliest hominid footprints in the Paleolithic era to the complex Iron Age Megalithic cultures of South India. The analysis is structured to address advanced historical dynamics, regional variations, recent archaeological discoveries (such as Lahuradewa, Sinauli, and Keeladi), and theoretical frameworks like ecological determinism and social evolution.

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I. The Paleolithic Age (The Old Stone Age)

The Paleolithic Age represents the earliest and longest phase of human history, spanning from approximately 2.5 million years ago to roughly 10,000 BCE in the Indian subcontinent. Unfolding entirely during the Pleistocene epoch, early humans faced extreme climatic conditions, functioning strictly as nomadic hunter-gatherers. The Indian Paleolithic is traditionally divided into three distinct phases based on the nature of stone tools used and the pattern of climate change.

1. Lower Paleolithic (The Hand-Axe Culture)

The Lower Paleolithic is characterized by the use of massive, unrefined core tools. Early humans manufactured tools by striking large pebbles or rock cores to create crude cutting edges. The primary tool types include hand-axes, cleavers, and choppers, predominantly crafted from locally available quartzite, earning these early inhabitants the moniker of "Quartzite Men". The tool-making traditions are broadly categorized into the Soanian tradition (chopper-chopping tools found in the Soan Valley) and the Acheulian tradition (hand-axes and cleavers found in Peninsular India).

UPSC Focus Sites:

• The Soan Valley (Punjab, present-day Pakistan).
• Belan Valley (Uttar Pradesh).
• Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu): Where archaeologist Robert Bruce Foote discovered the first Paleolithic tool in India, the Pallavaram handaxe.
• Bori (Maharashtra): Considered one of the earliest Lower Paleolithic sites based on tephra (volcanic ash) dating.
• The Narmada Man (Hathnora): A defining discovery of this epoch is the Narmada Man, excavated at Hathnora in Madhya Pradesh by Arun Sonakia in 1982. The find comprised a partially crushed skullcap and a hominid clavicle, accompanied by an Acheulian tool assemblage. This represents the first and only authentic fossil of a Pleistocene hominid found in India. Originally classified as an advanced variety of Homo erectus (specifically Homo erectus narmadensis), the fossil exhibits a unique amalgamation of archaic and derived features, including a relatively large cranial capacity (estimated between 1100-1400 cc). This discovery unequivocally proves the presence of advanced hominids in central India during the Middle Pleistocene, filling a critical gap in the evolutionary continuum between African and Southeast Asian hominid dispersals.

2. Middle Paleolithic (The Flake Tool Industry)

Spanning roughly 100,000 BCE to 40,000 BCE, the Middle Paleolithic phase marks a significant technological transition.

• The Transition: The massive core tools were gradually replaced by smaller, lighter, and more precisely crafted "flake" tools. Tools such as scrapers, borers, and points became predominant, while the use of heavy hand-axes sharply decreased.
• The Culture: This era is characterized by the Nevasan industry, named after the type-site of Nevasa in Maharashtra, located on the Pravara River. Other crucial sites include the Luni Valley in Rajasthan, the Tungabhadra River valleys, and the Potwar Plateau. This phase also provides the earliest circumstantial evidence of the controlled use of fire in the subcontinent, profoundly altering human dietary and settlement patterns.

3. Upper Paleolithic (The Blade Tool Industry)

Spanning from 40,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE, the Upper Paleolithic corresponds to the terminal phase of the Ice Age.

• The Climate Shift: The climate grew comparatively warmer and less humid, initiating significant ecological changes and paving the way for the Holocene.
• The Breakthrough: This phase marks the evolutionary breakthrough of anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens. Technologically, the era is defined by the emergence of the blade tool industry—parallel-sided flakes struck from a prepared core—alongside burins. A monumental advancement was the extensive use of bone tools. The most significant evidence emerges from the Kurnool Caves and Muchchatala Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh, which yielded harpoons, needles, and parallel-sided blades crafted from animal bones.

4. The Genesis of Prehistoric Art (Bhimbetka)

The Upper Paleolithic phase witnesses the dawn of cognitive abstraction, manifesting as prehistoric rock art. The Bhimbetka rock shelters, located in the Vindhya Range of Madhya Pradesh, serve as the paramount example. Early humans utilized mineral pigments, notably red ocher (hematite) and white, to paint linear, schematic representations of mega-fauna such as bisons, elephants, tigers, and rhinoceroses. These paintings likely served ritualistic functions connected to hunting magic and highlight a nascent socio-cultural awakening among early hunter-gatherer bands.

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II. The Mesolithic Age (The Transitional Phase)

Spanning roughly from 10,000 BCE to 6,000 BCE, the Mesolithic Age aligns with the onset of the Holocene epoch. The rapid melting of Pleistocene glaciers resulted in a warmer, drier climate. This environmental shift dramatically altered the continent's flora and fauna, replacing large mega-fauna with smaller, faster-moving prey. Humans were forced to adapt their technology and subsistence strategies to survive this ecological transition.

5. Microliths: The Technological Leap

• The Concept: The hallmark of the Mesolithic era is the invention of the "microlith"—miniature stone tools typically ranging from 1 to 5 centimeters in length. Made from finer materials like chert, chalcedony, and agate, these geometric forms included crescents, triangles, and trapezes.
• Hafting: These tiny stones were rarely used independently. Instead, microliths were "hafted" (embedded and glued using tree resin) onto wooden handles or bone shafts to construct composite weapons and tools such as spears, arrows, and sickles. This technological leap facilitated projectile hunting, allowing humans to target smaller, agile game and aquatic resources with unprecedented precision.

6. The Dawn of Domestication

While hunting, fishing, and gathering remained the primary modes of subsistence, the Mesolithic period witnessed the critical shift towards early animal husbandry.

• UPSC Core Sites: The sites of Bagor in Rajasthan and Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh provide the earliest archaeozoological evidence for the domestication of animals in India. The faunal assemblages here are dominated by the remains of domesticated sheep, goats, and cattle. This pastoral shift provided a reliable secondary food source, reducing absolute dependence on the unpredictability of the hunt and setting the stage for future agrarian societies.

7. Decoding Bhimbetka Rock Art (Mesolithic Phase)

The Mesolithic phase represents the zenith of prehistoric rock art in India.

• The Shift in Art: At Bhimbetka, the number of paintings multiplies significantly during this phase. While the physical size of the painted animals diminishes in accordance with Holocene ecological realities, the thematic scope expands exponentially to capture complex human interactions.
• Socio-Cultural Insights: The art reflects a society transitioning into community life. We observe depictions of group hunting scenes, rhythmic dancing, and the division of labor (e.g., women grinding food). A unique feature of this era is the "X-ray style" of painting, which attempts to depict the internal organs or fetuses of pregnant animals, demonstrating a deep empirical observation of anatomy and perhaps emerging spiritual concepts regarding fertility and life cycles.

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III. The Neolithic Age (The Food-Producing Revolution)

The Neolithic Age (c. 6000 BCE to 1000 BCE) represents a watershed moment in human history. The Australian archaeologist V. Gordon Childe appropriately termed it the "Neolithic Revolution," as the transition from a foraging economy to a food-producing economy permanently altered human demography, social organization, and ecological relationships.

8. The Hallmark of the Neolithic

The Neolithic culture is universally defined by a triad of interdependent traits:
1. Settled Agriculture: The cultivation of cereals led to sedentary village settlements, replacing the nomadic band structure.
2. Advanced Domestication: Animals were no longer kept merely for meat, but for dairy, wool, and traction (plowing), fundamentally altering the human-animal relationship.
3. Polished Stone Tools: The invention of ground and polished stone axes (celts) allowed for highly efficient forest clearance and deep soil preparation.

Additionally, the necessity to store surplus grain and cook agricultural produce led to the widespread invention of pottery. While early Neolithic phases (such as in Balochistan and Kashmir) were aceramic, later phases exhibit distinct wheel-made earthen pots.

9. The Agricultural Pioneers: Mehrgarh and Lahuradewa

For decades, Mehrgarh (situated in the Bolan Pass, Balochistan, dating to c. 7000 BCE) was universally cited as the earliest evidence of agriculture in the subcontinent. It yielded the earliest evidence of wheat and barley cultivation, alongside the world's earliest evidence of cotton domestication.

However, recent archaeological excavations have drastically recalibrated the chronological framework for agriculture in South Asia. UPSC Fact: The site of Lahuradewa in the Sant Kabir Nagar district of Uttar Pradesh has revealed evidence that fundamentally challenges older paradigms. Carbon dating of phytoliths and charred grains from Lahuradewa establishes the cultivation of domesticated rice (Oryza sativa) as early as 7000–6000 BCE. This evidence demonstrates that an independent center of plant domestication existed in the Gangetic plain, operating contemporaneously with the wheat-barley complex of the Northwest, and refuting the long-held belief that domesticated wetland rice arrived exclusively from China millennia later.

10. The Kashmiri Neolithic (Burzahom and Gufkral)

Sites like Burzahom and Gufkral in the Kashmir Valley present a unique cultural assemblage.

• Unique Features: Unlike other regions in India, these sites completely lacked a pronounced microlithic industry but featured a highly sophisticated bone tool industry, producing needles, harpoons, and arrowheads used for fishing and hunting.
• UPSC Trap: Burzahom is renowned for its subterranean pit-dwellings. Inhabitants dug circular or oval pits into the earth, plastered with mud, and accessed via steps or ladders, to insulate themselves against the severe Himalayan winters. Furthermore, Burzahom provides the unique ritualistic evidence of pet dogs being interred in the graves along with their human masters, indicating profound emotional or spiritual bonds with domesticated canines.

11. The South Indian Neolithic (The Ash Mounds)

The peninsular Neolithic, clustered in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana (sites such as Utnur, Piklihal, Watgal, and Tekkalakota), was distinctly agro-pastoral, with a heavy emphasis on cattle rearing.

• The Ash Mounds: A uniquely defining feature of this region is the presence of massive Ash Mounds. Initially misinterpreted as volcanic slag or industrial debris by early colonial geologists, meticulous research has revealed their true origin.
• The Analysis: These towering mounds were formed by the deliberate and repeated burning of massive accumulations of cattle dung inside wooden penning enclosures (the Zariba process). Microscopic analysis of phytoliths (silica bodies found in grass) fused by high-temperature combustion confirms the dung's origin from local grazing cattle. Anthropologists interpret the periodic burning of these dung heaps as highly ritualized, communal ceremonies. They likely represented seasonal festivals, fertility rites, or attempts to ward off diseases, establishing early concepts of sacred pastoralism in the South Indian landscape.

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IV. The Chalcolithic Age (The Copper-Stone Phase)

The Chalcolithic period (c. 3000 BCE to 500 BCE) marks humanity's initial foray into metallurgy, specifically the smelting and utilization of copper alongside established lithic technologies. While the Harappan Civilization represents a highly urbanized Bronze Age phenomenon, the broader Chalcolithic cultures were predominantly rural, farming communities that either co-existed with or succeeded the Harappans in various pockets of the subcontinent.

12. The Metal Transition and Pottery

Humans began utilizing locally smelted copper to forge tools, weapons, and ornaments. Despite the introduction of metal, microliths and polished stone tools continued to be used extensively. Culturally, they are identified by their specialized ceramic traditions, most notably the Black and Red Ware (BRW) pottery, which was frequently decorated with white linear painted designs.

13. Regional Chalcolithic Cultures

The Chalcolithic phenomenon exhibited profound regional diversity, generally named after their type-sites:

14. Social Stratification at Inamgaon

Mains Analytical Point: The extensive excavations at Inamgaon (a Jorwe culture site on the Bhima river) provide an unparalleled window into the socio-economic dynamics and the emergence of structural inequality during the Chalcolithic phase.

Inamgaon demonstrates a clear transition from egalitarian tribal setups to early chiefdoms. Social stratification is mapped explicitly through settlement architecture and burial practices. The settlement's core was occupied by a large, five-roomed rectangular structure—interpreted as the residence of the ruling chief—situated strategically adjacent to a public granary. Conversely, the periphery of the village was populated by smaller, circular pit-huts belonging to artisans and marginal farmers.

Burial data further corroborates this hierarchy. Elites were interred with luxury items (copper, ivory, and specific pottery), whereas commoners received simpler burials. Furthermore, bioarchaeological analysis of skeletal remains reveals a period of severe economic decline in the later phases of Inamgaon. As the climate aridified, the community was forced to shift from stable agriculture to a heavier reliance on animal protein and pastoralism, accompanied by alarmingly high rates of infant mortality.

15. Sinauli: Rewriting the Northern Chalcolithic

In the Northern plains, the Chalcolithic phase is uniquely represented by the Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) culture, frequently associated with Copper Hoards—caches containing sophisticated copper weaponry.

The historiography of the OCP culture has been radically disrupted by recent excavations at Sinauli in Uttar Pradesh. Dating to approximately 2000 BCE via advanced isotopic analysis, Sinauli revealed a sprawling necropolis containing elite warrior burials. The most paradigm-shifting discoveries were complete, solid-wheel, copper-reinforced chariots (or advanced war-carts), alongside copper-plated coffins, antennae swords, and shields.

These findings provide irrefutable evidence of an advanced martial society possessing sophisticated metallurgy and vehicular technology. The presence of chariots and elaborate royal burials contemporaneous with the Late Harappan phase challenges the traditional timeline that strictly associates chariots with the later Indo-Aryan (Vedic) migrations. It establishes the Gangetic Chalcolithic cultures as central players in the early development of warfare technology in the ancient world.

16. The Limitation of the Chalcolithic

Mains Analytical Point: Why didn't the Chalcolithic rural communities urbanize like the Harappans? The failure to achieve the threshold of urbanization was heavily determined by technological and ecological constraints:

• Metallurgical Constraints: They lacked the metallurgical knowledge to systematically alloy copper with tin to produce durable Bronze. Copper tools remained too soft for heavy-duty applications.
• Absence of Burnt Bricks: Unlike the Harappans, they relied entirely on wattle-and-daub or mud structures, preventing the construction of durable, monumental urban architecture.
• Geological Determinism: Crucially, their soft copper plows could not deeply penetrate the hard, sticky black cotton soil of the Deccan and Malwa. This severely limited their ability to generate a massive agricultural surplus—the primary prerequisite for sustaining a non-food-producing urban population.

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V. The Megalithic Culture (The South Indian Iron Age)

While Northern India witnessed the decline of the Harappan civilization and the subsequent rise of the Vedic culture, Peninsular India bypassed the Bronze Age almost entirely, transitioning directly from the Neolithic-Chalcolithic phase into a vibrant Iron Age known as the Megalithic Culture (c. 1000 BCE to 300 CE).

17. Defining Megaliths and Typology

The term "Megalith" originates from the Greek words megas (large) and lithos (stone). In the Indian context, these are not merely random large stones but highly structured, massive stone monuments erected primarily as funerary memorials or elaborate grave markers located away from the primary habitation zones. The sheer scale of these monuments implies a high degree of collective community effort, complex social organization, and specialized architectural guilds.

The mortuary architecture exhibits immense regional diversity, broadly classified into:

• Dolmens: Chamber tombs formed by erecting unhewn stone slabs (orthostats) and covering them with a massive, flat capstone, resembling a stone table.
• Cists: Subterranean box-like graves constructed using granite slabs, often featuring a "porthole" on one side, likely for the introduction of secondary remains or ritual offerings.
• Menhirs: Tall, monolithic, upright stones erected as commemorative pillars (similar to obelisks).
• Urn Burials and Sarcophagi: The deceased (often secondary skeletal remains) were placed in massive terracotta urns or multi-legged terracotta coffins (sarcophagi).
• Rock-cut Caves: Subterranean chambers carved directly into laterite rock (prominent in Kerala), demanding advanced iron tools and engineering precision.

18. The Iron and Horse Connection

The Megalithic builders were the indisputable pioneers of iron metallurgy in South India. Excavations at almost all major Megalithic sites—including Hallur, Sanur, Brahmagiri, and Junapani—yield a prolific amount of iron artifacts. The assemblages are overwhelmingly martial, comprising swords, daggers, tridents, arrowheads, and spearheads.

A critical feature of Megalithic burials is the undeniable connection to the horse. Skeletal remains of horses, alongside specialized equestrian equipment such as iron snaffle bits, bar-bits, and saddle fixtures, are frequently interred with the dead. In the Vidarbha region (e.g., Mahurjhari, Naikund), horses were ceremonially sacrificed to accompany the elite dead into the afterlife, indicating a highly mobile, warrior-centric social structure.

19. Socio-Economic Life: The Shift to Paddy

While early Megalithic communities were largely nomadic or semi-settled martial pastoralists (indicated by thin occupational debris), they gradually spearheaded a major agricultural transformation. Utilizing their heavy iron implements, they were the first to clear the dense forests of the southern peninsula and introduce systematic wet-rice (paddy) cultivation. To sustain this, they pioneered localized tank irrigation networks, a strategy that radically transformed the carrying capacity of the land and laid the economic foundation for future empires.

20. Urbanization in the South: Adichanallur and Keeladi

Recent archaeological paradigms have shifted focus to how the Megalithic Iron Age matured into the early historic urbanization of the Sangam Age.

• Adichanallur (Thoothukudi district, Tamil Nadu), located on the Thamirabarani River, is one of the most extensive urn-burial sites in India. Excavations have revealed gold diadems, bronze figurines, and iron tools alongside secondary burials in massive urns. The findings at Adichanallur provide material corroboration for the funerary rites (tali) detailed in ancient Sangam literature, bridging the gap between prehistory and recorded history. Recent protections by the Madras High Court in 2024–2025 highlight its ongoing archaeological importance.
• Further north, on the Vaigai River, the excavations at Keeladi have systematically dismantled the notion that urbanization was an exclusive phenomenon of the Gangetic valley. Radiocarbon dates place the cultural deposit at Keeladi to the 6th century BCE. The site reveals a sophisticated urban settlement featuring baked brick structures, covered drainage systems, ring wells, and industrial bead-making facilities. Furthermore, potsherds inscribed with Tamil-Brahmi script demonstrate a high level of literacy. Keeladi conclusively proves that a flourishing, indigenous, and literate urban civilization evolved in South India concurrently with the Second Urbanization of the North, fundamentally challenging Eurocentric and North-centric historical biases.

21. Genomic Studies and Living Megalithism

Modern scientific efforts, led by the Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI), are currently undertaking genomic studies on ancient skeletal remains recovered from these Megalithic sites. By extracting and analyzing ancient DNA, researchers aim to trace migration patterns, resolve debates regarding Aryan/Dravidian origins, and reconstruct the demographic history of South Asia.

Unlike the Paleolithic or Chalcolithic cultures, Megalithism in India is not entirely extinct. It survives as a living anthropological tradition among several indigenous tribal communities. Tribes such as the Khasis, Garos, and Jaintias in Meghalaya, the Nagas in the Northeast, and the Gonds, Gadabas, and Mundas in Central India continue to erect stone monoliths to commemorate their ancestors, conduct fertility rituals, and assert territorial rights, providing modern anthropologists with invaluable ethnographic analogies to decode prehistoric practices.

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VI. Advanced UPSC Dynamics (Mains Analytical Frameworks)

For advanced analytical studies, prehistoric data must be synthesized into broader thematic frameworks to understand the structural evolution of Indian society.

22. The Ecological Determinism of Indian Prehistory

The Mains Synthesis: Prehistoric settlement patterns in India were not random; they were strictly dictated by geological and ecological determinism.

During the Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages, human habitation was entirely confined to the hilly, rugged terrains of the Vindhyas, the Deccan plateau, and the Himalayan foothills. The reason was twofold: early humans required naturally occurring rock shelters (caves) for protection, and surface outcroppings of quartzite and chert to manufacture tools.

Consequently, they actively avoided the massive, fertile alluvial plains of the Ganga and Indus because the deep alluvium lacked surface stones entirely. It was only when humans developed metallurgy—first copper, and definitively iron—that they could sever their absolute reliance on stone. The advent of heavy iron axes allowed communities to clear the dense, swampy monsoon forests of the Gangetic plain, leading to the dramatic shift of the civilizational epicenter from the hills and the Indus to the Gangetic heartland.

23. Social Evolution: From Band to Chiefdom

The prehistoric timeline precisely tracks the evolution of political organization as outlined by anthropologist Elman Service: Band $\rightarrow$ Tribe $\rightarrow$ Chiefdom $\rightarrow$ State.

• Bands: Paleolithic and Mesolithic societies operated as egalitarian bands—small, kinship-based nomadic groups with fluid leadership based on age or hunting prowess.
• Tribes: The Neolithic agricultural revolution necessitated settled village life, leading to tribal organizations bound by strict lineage, early religious totems, and communal ownership of land.
• Chiefdoms: The Chalcolithic (e.g., Inamgaon) and Megalithic phases saw the emergence of chiefdoms. The generation of agricultural surplus and the control over critical resources (copper/iron metallurgy) allowed specific lineages to accumulate wealth, establish hereditary leadership (the Chief), redistribute resources, and dictate social hierarchies.

24. The Impact of Iron and the Second Urbanization

The discovery of iron smelting was the fundamental catalyst for the "Second Urbanization" in the 6th century BCE. According to historians like D.D. Kosambi and R.S. Sharma, iron technology functioned as a prime mover of socio-economic change.

Iron axes cleared the thick vegetation of the Middle Ganga valley (Majjhimadesa), while iron plowshares penetrated the hard alluvial clay, leading to an unprecedented explosion in agricultural production. This massive agrarian surplus released a segment of the population from manual farm labor, leading to the rise of specialized artisans, trade guilds, coinage, and monumental architecture. Ultimately, this economic foundation facilitated the rise of the 16 Mahajanapadas (the first territorial states) and supported the non-food producing urban residents, altering the demographic landscape of ancient India.

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📝 Summary for Quick Revision

• Bori: Considered the earliest Lower Paleolithic site based on tephra dating.
• Hathnora: Site of the Narmada Man (Homo erectus), the first and only authentic Pleistocene hominid fossil found in India.
• Bhimbetka: Features continuous rock art from the Upper Paleolithic through the Mesolithic phase; crucial for depicting the socio-cultural evolution of early bands.
• Kurnool Caves: Provides the earliest evidence of bone tools in India.
• Bagor & Adamgarh: Mesolithic sites yielding the earliest evidence of animal domestication in the subcontinent.
• Mehrgarh: Traditionally the first agricultural site (wheat/barley/cotton), though newer findings at Lahuradewa push independent rice cultivation back to 7000 BCE.
• Burzahom: A unique Kashmiri Neolithic site famous for subterranean pit dwellings and the ritualistic burial of pet dogs with their human masters.
• Ash Mounds: Massive burnt dung heaps in South India (Utnur, Piklihal) indicating a highly ritualized pastoral economy during the Neolithic phase.
• Chalcolithic Phase: Marked by the first use of metal (Copper) and Black and Red Ware (BRW) pottery. Predominantly rural.
• Inamgaon: A critical Chalcolithic Jorwe site that demonstrates early social inequality, the rise of Chiefdoms, and bioarchaeological evidence of economic decline.
• Sinauli: OCP/Copper Hoard site revealing 4000-year-old warrior burials, chariots, and advanced copper weaponry, challenging older chronological paradigms.
• Megalithic Culture: Defines the South Indian Iron Age. Characterized by large stone burials (Dolmens, Cists, Urns), the introduction of wet-rice cultivation, tank irrigation, and a strong association with horses and iron weapons.
• Keeladi & Adichanallur: South Indian sites that prove a transition from Megalithic burials to advanced, literate urbanization, providing material evidence for Sangam literature.

Mains Concepts:

• Ecological Determinism: Prehistoric settlements clung to hills for stone and natural caves; they shifted to the fertile Gangetic plains only after Iron was discovered to clear forests.
• Second Urbanization: The advent of iron plows and axes generated the agricultural surplus necessary to build the Mahajanapadas and early historic cities.