The landform 'Pediplain' is formed by the geomorphic process associated with:
- Running Water (Arid Regions)
- Glaciers
- Wind (Aeolian)
- Groundwater
Explanation: Pediplains are formed by the coalescing of pediments, usually through the process of scarp retreat and lateral erosion by streams in arid or semi-arid regions.
Which of the following is the 'Driving Force' in the Factor of Safety equation for slope stability?
- Internal friction.
- Vegetation roots.
- The downslope component of gravity (Shear Stress).
- Cohesion.
Explanation: Gravity is the driving force that tries to pull the material down. Cohesion, friction, and roots are resisting forces.
Which of the following processes leads to the formation of 'Felsenmeer' (Stone Fields)?
- Wind Abrasion
- Frost Wedging
- Chemical Dissolution
- Hydraulic Action
Explanation: Felsenmeers are large areas covered by angular rock fragments produced by intense frost action (freeze-thaw) in high-latitude or high-altitude regions.
Consider the following statements regarding the role of 'Biological Weathering':
1. Burrowing by organisms increases the exposed surface area for chemical weathering.
2. Decaying plant and animal matter produce humic acids which enhance mineral dissolution.
3. Algae and lichens can cause weathering only through chemical means.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
- 1 and 3 only
- 1 and 2 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
Explanation: Statement 3 is incorrect because lichens and algae cause physical weathering as well; they expand and contract when wet/dry, mechanically pulling off rock flakes.
The formation of 'Duricrusts' (like Caliche or Laterite) is primarily due to:
- Basaltic lava cooling.
- Deep-sea sediment compaction.
- Evaporation and precipitation of minerals within the soil profile.
- Physical shattering by frost.
Explanation: Duricrusts are hard layers formed when minerals like Silica (Silcrete), Iron (Ferricrete), or Calcium (Calcrete) are concentrated by water movement and evaporation.
With reference to 'Slumping', the defining characteristic is:
- Movement of material along a curved slip plane with backward rotation.
- Fluid-like flow of debris.
- Slow, imperceptible movement due to freeze-thaw.
- Vertical fall of rock blocks.
Explanation: Slumping is a 'rotational slide'. The curved nature of the failure surface causes the top of the block to tilt backward toward the cliff.
Consider the following statements about 'Exogenic agents':
1. Gravity is the ultimate energy source for all exogenic processes.
2. Temperature and precipitation are the two most important climatic controls over exogenic processes.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- 2 only
- 1 only
- Both 1 and 2
- Neither 1 nor 2
Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect; while gravity drives mass movements, the SUN is the ultimate energy source for exogenic processes (driving wind, water cycles, etc.).
Consider the following statements about 'Rockfalls':
1. They involve the free-fall of debris down a vertical or near-vertical slope.
2. They are most common in areas with thick soil and vegetation.
3. They contribute to the formation of 'Talus' cones at the base of cliffs.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
- 2 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
- 1 and 3 only
- 1 and 2 only
Explanation: Rockfalls occur on bare, exposed rock faces. Vegetation and soil actually act as stabilizers and prevent free-fall rock movements.
The term 'Tenebrific' or 'Insolation Weathering' is usually associated with which environment?
- Hot Deserts
- Permafrost Regions
- Deep Ocean Floors
- Tropical Rainforests
Explanation: Insolation weathering (thermal expansion/contraction) is most significant where diurnal temperature ranges are extreme, such as hot deserts.
In the context of 'Hydrolysis' vs 'Hydration', which of the following is the most significant difference?
- Hydrolysis occurs only in arid regions, while hydration is specific to humid regions.
- Hydrolysis involves the exchange of ions and creates new minerals; Hydration involves the addition of water molecules to a mineral's structure.
- There is no functional difference between the two.
- Hydration involves a chemical change, while hydrolysis is just physical absorption.
Explanation: Hydrolysis is a true chemical decomposition (e.g., Feldspar to Clay) involving H+ ions. Hydration is the chemical bonding of water into the crystal lattice (e.g., Anhydrite to Gypsum).
Consider the following statements regarding 'Thermal Stress Weathering':
1. The 'Insulation effect' in rocks is high, meaning heat is transferred very slowly to the rock core.
2. 'Shattering' occurs when internal stresses exceed the tensile strength of the rock.
3. It is most effective in minerals with low albedo (dark colors).
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- 1 only
- 1, 2 and 3
- 1 and 2 only
- 2 and 3 only
Explanation: Rocks are poor conductors (high insulation). Darker minerals absorb more solar radiation, leading to higher thermal stress. Shattering is the mechanical failure resulting from these stresses.
In the context of erosion, 'Saltation' refers to:
- The sinking of heavy boulders into the sea bed.
- The transport of smaller particles in the air or water by hopping and bouncing.
- The formation of salt flats in desert basins.
- The chemical reaction of salt with rock surfaces.
Explanation: Saltation is a mode of transport where particles (usually sand-sized) are picked up by the wind or water and bounced along the surface.
Which geomorphic agent is responsible for the formation of 'Inselbergs' and 'Mushroom Rocks'?
- Running Water
- Wind
- Glaciers
- Sea Waves
Explanation: Mushroom rocks (Pedestal rocks) and Inselbergs (though often initiated by water) are characteristic landforms shaped primarily by wind abrasion in arid regions.
The 'Van’t Hoff’s Rule' in geomorphology explains why:
- Hard rocks weather slower than soft rocks.
- Erosion is faster in high-velocity rivers.
- Chemical weathering rates double or triple with every 10°C rise in temperature.
- Glacial movement depends on ice thickness.
Explanation: This rule highlights why tropical regions (hot and humid) experience vastly more aggressive chemical weathering than temperate zones.
What is the primary difference between 'Weathering' and 'Erosion'?
- Weathering involves movement; Erosion is in-situ.
- There is no functional difference between the two.
- Weathering is a physical process; Erosion is only chemical.
- Weathering is in-situ disintegration; Erosion involves the transportation of material.
Explanation: Weathering is the static breaking down of rocks. As soon as the material is moved by an agent (water, wind, etc.), it is considered erosion.
Which of the following minerals is most unstable at the Earth's surface according to the Goldich Dissolution Series?
- Feldspar
- Quartz
- Olivine
- Muscovite
Explanation: Olivine forms at the highest temperatures in Bowen's series and is the most chemically unstable at the surface. Quartz is the most stable.
Consider the following statements about 'Mass Wasting' and water:
1. Water increases pore-water pressure, which reduces the internal friction of the material.
2. Water acts as a lubricant along potential slip planes.
3. Complete saturation of sand increases its cohesion and angle of repose.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- 1 and 2 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1 only
- 1, 2 and 3
Explanation: Statement 3 is incorrect. While slightly damp sand is cohesive, full saturation causes it to lose strength and flow like a liquid, decreasing the angle of repose.
The process of 'Exfoliation' or 'Onion Peeling' is most commonly associated with which combination of processes?
1. Chemical Weathering (Hydration)
2. Physical Weathering (Unloading)
3. Thermal Expansion and Contraction
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- 2 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
- 1 and 2 only
- 3 only
Explanation: Exfoliation is a result-dependent process caused by multiple triggers: unloading (pressure release), thermal expansion (insolation weathering), and sometimes chemical hydration of surface minerals.
Consider the following statements regarding Chemical Weathering:
1. Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is absorbed by water to form a weak acid that reacts with carbonate rocks.
2. Oxidation is more significant in areas where the water table is high and oxygen access is limited.
3. Hydration involves the chemical addition of water but does not involve any volume change in minerals.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- 2 and 3 only
- 1 only
- 1, 2 and 3
- 1 and 2 only
Explanation: Statement 2 is incorrect because oxidation occurs where there is ready access to oxygen (high oxygen environment). Statement 3 is incorrect because hydration almost always involves a significant volume change, leading to physical disintegration.
Which of the following is an example of an anthropogenic geomorphic process?
- Large-scale open-cast mining.
- Growth of lichens on rocks.
- Burrowing by earthworms.
- Tree roots splitting granite.
Explanation: Anthropogenic processes are those driven specifically by human activity, which has become a major geomorphic agent in modern times.
Which of the following is an example of 'Chemical Erosion' (Corrosion) by a river?
- Dissolution of soluble minerals in the channel rocks.
- Pothole drilling in the river bed.
- Widening of the valley by lateral bank erosion.
- Formation of a delta at the mouth.
Explanation: Corrosion refers specifically to the chemical solvent action of water on the rock minerals of the river bed and banks.
Consider the following statements regarding 'Salt Weathering':
1. It is primarily a chemical weathering process resulting from the dissolution of sodium chloride.
2. Thermal expansion of salt crystals within rock pores exerts significant internal pressure.
3. It is a major cause of honeycomb weathering in coastal areas.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- 3 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1 and 2 only
- 1, 2 and 3
Explanation: Statement 1 is incorrect; salt weathering is a physical process where crystals grow and expand mechanically within rock gaps. It is highly prevalent in desert and coastal environments.
Regarding 'Earthquakes' as geomorphic triggers, which of the following is true?
- They provide the trigger that increases shear stress and initiates mass wasting.
- They cause only chemical changes in rocks.
- They reduce erosion by compacting soil.
- They are classified as exogenic processes.
Explanation: While earthquakes are endogenic (internal), they act as the catalyst for exogenic events like landslides and rockfalls.
With reference to geomorphology, the term 'Regolith' refers to:
- The solid bedrock layer.
- The organic-rich top layer of soil only.
- The sediment deposited in a river delta.
- The layer of loose, weathered material covering bedrock.
Explanation: Regolith is the blanket of loose, heterogenous superficial deposits covering solid rock. It includes dust, soil, broken rocks, and other related materials.
Consider the following statements regarding 'Denudation Chronology':
1. It studies the history of landscape evolution through time.
2. It looks for 'peneplains' to identify periods of tectonic stability.
3. It accounts for both uplift and erosional history.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
- 1 and 2 only
- 1 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
- 2 and 3 only
Explanation: Denudation chronology reconstructs past stages of the landscape by looking at erosion surfaces and uplift events.
Which of the following sequences correctly represents the increasing speed of mass movement?
- Solifluction < Creep < Mudflow < Earthflow
- Earthflow < Mudflow < Solifluction < Creep
- Debris Avalanche < Slump < Creep < Rockfall
- Creep < Solifluction < Slump < Debris Avalanche
Explanation: Creep is the slowest (mm/year). Solifluction is slow. Slumps are moderate to fast. Debris avalanches are extremely rapid (m/sec).
Match the following Geomorphic Terms with their descriptions:
A. Solifluction 1. Slow downslope movement of soil over permafrost
B. Earthflow 2. Rapid movement of water-saturated clayey material
C. Mudflow 3. Movement of debris in a volcanic region (Lahar)
D. Creep 4. Extremely slow, imperceptible movement of soil
Select the correct code:
- 4, B-3, C-2, D-1
- 1, B-3, C-2, D-4
- 4, B-2, C-3, D-1
- 1, B-2, C-3, D-4
Explanation: Solifluction is the classic periglacial process (soil over frozen ground). Earthflows are typical of clayey materials. Mudflows are very liquid-saturated and common in volcanic areas (Lahars).
Which of the following is NOT a form of 'Rapid Mass Movement'?
- Mudflow
- Slump
- Solifluction
- Debris Avalanche
Explanation: Solifluction is classified as a 'Slow Mass Movement' along with Creep, because it occurs over a period of years.
Consider the following statements regarding 'Splash Erosion':
1. It is the first stage of soil erosion caused by raindrop impact.
2. It can move soil particles several feet horizontally.
3. It is most effective on bare soil lacking vegetation.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
- 2 and 3 only
- 1 and 2 only
- 1 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
Explanation: Raindrops act as small 'bombs'. Vegetation intercepts this energy, so bare soil is extremely vulnerable to this initial stage of erosion.
The formation of 'Tor' landforms is best explained by which of the following?
- Glacial plucking on the leeward side of mountain ranges.
- Intense wind abrasion in high-altitude deserts.
- Rapid cooling of basaltic lava in a jointed pattern.
- Two-stage process involving sub-surface chemical weathering followed by exhumation.
Explanation: Tors form when groundwater weathers granite joints underground (Hydrolysis). When the surrounding weathered regolith is eroded away, the resistant core-stones are left as Tors.
Which of the following is the 'Base Level' of erosion as defined by John Wesley Powell?
- The confluence of two rivers
- The hardest rock layer in a valley
- The Sea Level
- The source of the river
Explanation: The 'Base Level' is the lowest limit of subaerial erosion. For most rivers, this is the ultimate sea level.
Consider the following pairs regarding Erosion processes:
1. Abrasion: Rocks striking against each other.
2. Attrition: Grinding of rock surfaces by the river's load.
3. Corrosion: Chemical solvent action of water.
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
- 1 and 2 only
- 1, 2 and 3
- 1 and 3 only
- 3 only
Explanation: Statement 1 and 2 are swapped. Abrasion is the grinding of rock surfaces by the river's load. Attrition is the process where the rocks in the load strike each other and break down.
What is the primary driver of 'Exfoliation Domes' in granitic terrains?
- Isostatic rebound and Pressure Release (Unloading).
- Oxidation of iron-rich core minerals.
- Growth of tree roots into horizontal joints.
- Chemical dissolution by carbonic acid.
Explanation: When overlying weight is removed by erosion, the granite expands upward. This creates pressure-release joints parallel to the surface, causing the rock to peel in sheets.
Consider the following statements about 'Enrichment' as a result of weathering:
1. It is a process of secondary concentration of valuable minerals.
2. Physical weathering is the primary driver of this process by mechanically crushing rocks.
3. Bauxite is a classic example of an ore formed by this process.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
- 1, 2 and 3
- 1 and 3 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1 and 2 only
Explanation: Statement 2 is incorrect because Residual Enrichment is driven by **chemical weathering**, specifically leaching, which removes soluble materials like silica. Physical weathering alone does not concentrate minerals into high-grade ores.
With reference to 'Soil Creep', consider the following:
1. It is the fastest form of mass movement.
2. It results in tilted fence posts and curved tree trunks.
3. It is only found in tropical humid climates.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- 2 and 3 only
- 2 only
- 1, 2 and 3
- 1 and 2 only
Explanation: Soil creep is the slowest (imperceptible) mass movement. It is found in almost all climates where slopes exist, not just tropical humid areas.
In the process of 'Solution', which rock type is most easily eroded by groundwater?
- Granite
- Sandstone
- Basalt
- Limestone
Explanation: Limestone consists mainly of calcium carbonate, which dissolves easily in water containing carbon dioxide.
In Karst topography, a compound sinkhole formed by the coalescence of several smaller dolines is called:
- Lapies
- Stalactite
- Polje
- Uvala
Explanation: An Uvala is a large closed depression formed when multiple individual dolines (sinkholes) merge together.
With reference to Exogenic Geomorphic Processes, consider the following statements:
1. The force applied per unit area that results from the differential action of gravity is called geomorphic stress.
2. Molecular stresses caused by temperature changes and crystallization are the primary drivers of chemical weathering.
3. All exogenic processes are covered under the general term 'denudation'.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
- 1, 2 and 3
- 1 and 3 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1 and 2 only
Explanation: Statement 2 is incorrect because molecular stresses caused by temperature changes, wetting/drying, and crystallization are drivers of physical (mechanical) weathering, not chemical weathering. Chemical weathering relies on oxygen, solvents, and acids.
Consider the following pairs regarding weathering products:
1. Spheroidal Weathering: Forms rounded boulders.
2. Frost Action: Forms Talus or Scree.
3. Oxidation: Forms 'Rust' (Iron oxides).
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
- 2 and 3 only
- 1 and 3 only
- 1 and 2 only
- 1, 2 and 3
Explanation: All three are classic examples of weathering products/results.
Which of the following factors are responsible for the 'Differential Weathering' of rocks?
1. Structural variations in rocks.
2. Differences in vegetation cover.
3. Micro-climatic variations on the same rock face.
4. Complete uniformity in mineral composition across the rock mass.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
- 1, 2 and 3 only
- 1, 2, 3 and 4
- 2, 3 and 4 only
- 1 and 3 only
Explanation: Statement 4 is incorrect because **uniformity** would lead to even weathering. Differential weathering specifically occurs due to **variations** or heterogeneity in rock structure, mineralogy, and exposure to environmental factors.
With reference to the 'Base Level' of erosion, what happens if the Sea Level falls?
- Chemical weathering ceases.
- Rivers stop flowing to the sea.
- Rivers undergo 'rejuvenation' and start eroding vertically again.
- Rivers will deposit sediment in their headwaters.
Explanation: A drop in base level creates a 'knickpoint'. The river gains new energy to cut down through its bed to reach the new, lower sea level.
Which of the following climatic conditions is most favorable for 'Deep Regolith' formation through weathering?
- Cold and Humid
- Cold and Arid
- Hot and Humid
- Hot and Arid
Explanation: Chemical weathering (the primary driver of deep soil/regolith formation) is most active under high temperatures and high moisture availability.
The process of 'Hydration Shattering' is most likely to occur in rocks containing:
- Gold veins.
- Clay minerals like Smectite.
- Obsidians.
- Pure Quartz grains.
Explanation: Smectite clays expand significantly when they absorb water. This internal swelling exerts enough pressure to shatter the rock from within.
Which of the following factors primarily determines the transition from 'Sheetwash' to 'Rill erosion'?
- Mineralogy of the bedrock.
- The temperature of the rainfall.
- The concentration of runoff into tiny, well-defined channels.
- The depth of the water table.
Explanation: Sheetwash is unconfined. Once the water gains enough energy to focus into small channels (rills), the erosion rate increases significantly.
In the context of 'Hydrolysis', which mineral is most commonly converted into Clay minerals?
- Olivine
- Pyroxene
- Quartz
- Feldspar
Explanation: Hydrolysis is the chemical reaction between water and minerals. Feldspar reacts with water (especially slightly acidic water) to produce Kaolinite (Clay).
Consider the following pairs regarding weathering patterns:
1. Granular Disintegration: Common in coarse-grained rocks like granite.
2. Block Disintegration: Common in well-jointed sedimentary rocks.
3. Spheroidal Weathering: A chemical process that rounds corners and edges.
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
- 1 and 3 only
- 1 and 2 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
Explanation: All three are classic descriptions of how rocks physically and chemically break down into specific shapes.
What is the primary difference between 'Earthflow' and 'Mudflow'?
- Earthflows are faster than mudflows.
- There is no functional difference.
- Earthflows occur only in cold climates.
- Mudflows have higher water content and are usually channelized; Earthflows are more viscous.
Explanation: Mudflows are liquid-saturated and follow stream valleys. Earthflows move more slowly and are less fluid, often forming a tongue-shaped mass on a slope.
What is the geomorphic significance of the 'Hypsometric Curve'?
- It describes the distribution of Earth's surface area at various elevations.
- It measures the rate of cave formation in Karst.
- It correlates river length with flood probability.
- It identifies the age of a tectonic plate.
Explanation: The curve helps geomorphologists determine if a landscape is in a 'youthful', 'mature', or 'old' stage of erosion based on the remaining volume of land.
The 'Leaching' process is most critical for the formation of:
- Loess deposits.
- Limestone pavements.
- Glacial moraines.
- Laterite soil.
Explanation: Leaching removes silica and soluble nutrients from the soil, leaving a residue of Iron and Aluminum—this is the definition of laterization.
Which of the following describes 'Talus'?
- Fine wind-blown silt.
- A floodplain deposit.
- Frozen ground in the arctic.
- An accumulation of angular rock fragments at the base of a cliff.
Explanation: Talus (or scree) is the pile of debris that forms when rocks are broken off a cliff by frost or gravity and accumulate at the bottom.
Regarding 'Mass Movements', which of the following statements is incorrect?
- The presence of water increases the weight of the debris and acts as a lubricant.
- Weathering is a mandatory pre-requisite for mass movements to occur.
- Mass movements can occur on even very gentle slopes.
- They are primarily driven by gravity and not by geomorphic agents like water or ice.
Explanation: While weathering usually aids mass movements by weakening rocks, it is NOT a mandatory prerequisite. Mass movements can happen on unweathered slopes if the force of gravity exceeds the shearing strength of the materials.
Regarding the 'Peltier Diagram' for weathering, consider the following:
1. Strong chemical weathering is dominant in areas with high mean annual temperature and high rainfall.
2. Frost wedging is inhibited in regions where the temperature remains constantly below -15°C.
3. Physical weathering is maximum in hot and arid environments.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
- 1 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
- 1 and 2 only
- 2 and 3 only
Explanation: Frost wedging requires freeze-thaw cycles; extreme cold prevents the 'thaw' part. Statement 1 and 3 represent the classic climatic controls on weathering types.
With reference to the 'Geomorphic Threshold', consider the following statements:
1. It represents a point where the equilibrium of a landform system is disrupted without any change in external agents.
2. Reaching a threshold leads to an abrupt change or a 'geomorphic response' in the landscape.
3. The accumulation of weathered debris on a slope until it spontaneously collapses is an example of an intrinsic threshold.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
- 1 and 3 only
- 1 and 2 only
- 2 and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
Explanation: A geomorphic threshold can be extrinsic (forced by climate/tectonics) or intrinsic (internal system failure). Statement 3 is a classic example of an intrinsic threshold where no external trigger like an earthquake is needed for failure.
In the Goldich Dissolution Series, which mineral is most similar to Quartz in its high resistance to weathering?
- Pyroxene
- Amphibole
- Ca-Plagioclase
- Muscovite
Explanation: Muscovite and Quartz are the last to weather because they form at the lowest temperatures and have the most stable chemical structures at the surface.
With reference to 'Landslides', a 'Slump' is characterized by:
- Fluid-like movement of mud down a narrow channel.
- Slipping of rock debris with a backward rotation.
- Movement of debris along a straight bedding plane.
- Free fall of rock from a vertical cliff.
Explanation: Slumping is a specific type of landslide where the material moves along a curved slip plane with a distinct backward rotation.
The 'Angle of Repose' refers to:
- The steepest angle at which loose material remains stable.
- The curvature of a mountain peak due to glacial action.
- The angle of a subduction zone in plate tectonics.
- The angle at which a river starts eroding vertically.
Explanation: Angle of repose is the maximum slope at which loose material (sand, rock debris) can rest without sliding.
Consider the following statements about 'Block Disintegration':
1. It is primarily a result of daily temperature variations in arid regions.
2. Rocks with well-defined joints are more susceptible to this process.
3. It occurs because rocks are good conductors of heat.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- 1, 2 and 3
- 1 only
- 1 and 2 only
- 2 and 3 only
Explanation: Statement 3 is incorrect; rocks are poor conductors of heat. This lack of conductivity causes the outer layer to expand/contract while the inner layer stays stable, leading to stress and breaking along joints.
Consider the following statements regarding 'Carbonation':
1. It is the reaction of carbonate or bicarbonate with minerals.
2. It is highly effective on Feldspar and Carbonate rocks.
3. It is inhibited in lower temperatures because CO2 is less soluble in cold water.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- 1, 2 and 3
- 1 and 2 only
- 2 only
- 1 and 3 only
Explanation: Statement 3 is incorrect because CO2 is actually MORE soluble in cold water, making carbonation highly effective in cooler, moist climates.
Consider the following statements about 'Cation Exchange Capacity' (CEC) and weathering:
1. It is the ability of a soil to hold and exchange positively charged ions.
2. Highly weathered tropical soils (Laterites) usually have very high CEC.
3. CEC is a crucial factor in mineral breakdown through ion exchange.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
- 1 and 3 only
- 1 and 2 only
Explanation: Statement 2 is incorrect. Extreme weathering in the tropics leaches away the 'nutrient-holding' clays, resulting in soils with very low CEC.
Which of the following describes the 'Chelation' process in biological weathering?
- Physical grinding of rocks by animal movement.
- The removal of metal ions from minerals by organic acids to form stable ring-shaped molecules.
- The swelling of clay minerals upon contact with water.
- The precipitation of salt crystals from saline groundwater.
Explanation: Chelation is a complex chemical-biological process where organic molecules 'grip' metals like Iron or Aluminum, accelerating mineral decay significantly.